מעודכן ל: 9.1.2025
דיבור שטנה
ביטויי שנאה
שיח מסית
עוולות ביטוי
Hate Speech
Racist Speech
Offensive Speech
Insulting Speech
Hate Speech: Linguistic Perspectives
by
Hate speech has been extensively studied by disciplines such as social psychology, sociology, history, politics and law. Some significant areas of study have been the origins of hate speech in past and modern societies around the world; the way hate speech paves the way for harmful social movements; the socially destructive force of propaganda; and the legal responses to hate speech. On reviewing the literature, one major weakness stands out: hate speech, a crime perpetrated primarily by malicious and damaging language use, has no significant study in the field of linguistics. Historically, pragmatic theories have tended to address language as cooperative action, geared to reciprocally informative polite understanding. As a result of this idealized view of language, negative types of discourse such as harassment, defamation, hate speech, etc. have been neglected as objects of linguistic study. Since they go against social, moral and legal norms, many linguists have wrongly depicted those acts of wrong communication as unusual, anomalous or deviant when they are, in fact, usual and common in modern societies all over the world. The book analyses the challenges legal practitioners and linguists must meet when dealing with hate speech, especially with the advent of new technologies and social networks, and takes a linguistic perspective by targeting the knowledge the linguist can provide that makes harassment actionable.
Hate Speech Frontiers: Exploring the Limits of the Ordinary and Legal Concepts
by
No serious attempt to answer the question 'What is hate speech?' would be complete without an exploration of the outer limits of the concept(s). This book critically examines both the ordinary and legal concepts of hate speech, contrasting social media platform content policies with national and international laws. It also explores a range of controversial grey area examples of hate speech. Part I focuses on the ordinary concept and looks at hybrid attacks, selective attacks, reverse attacks, righteous attacks, indirect attacks, identity attacks, existential denials, identity denials, identity miscategorisations, and identity appropriations. Part II concentrates on the legal concept. It considers how to distinguish between hate speech and hate crime, and examines the precarious position of denialism laws in national and international law. Together, the authors draw on conceptual analysis, doctrinal analysis, linguistic analysis, critical analysis, and diachronic analysis to map the new frontiers of the concepts of hate speech.
Hate Speech Law: A Philosophical Examination
by
Hate speech law can be found throughout the world. But it is also the subject of numerous principled arguments, both for and against. These principles invoke a host of morally relevant features (e.g., liberty, health, autonomy, security, non-subordination, the absence of oppression, human dignity, the discovery of truth, the acquisition of knowledge, self-realization, human excellence, civic dignity, cultural diversity and choice, recognition of cultural identity, intercultural dialogue, participation in democratic self-government, being subject only to legitimate rule) and practical considerations (e.g., efficacy, the least restrictive alternative, chilling effects). The book develops and then critically examines these various principled arguments. It also attempts to de-homogenize hate speech law into different clusters of laws/regulations/codes that constrain uses of hate speech, so as to facilitate a more nuanced examination of the principled arguments. Finally, it argues that it is morally fitting for judicial and legislative judgments about the overall warrant of hate speech law to reflect principled compromise. Principled compromise is characterized not merely by compromise over matters of principled concern but also by compromise which is itself governed by ideals of moral duty or civic virtue (e.g., reciprocity, equality, and mutual respect). The Open Access version of this book, available at https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315714899, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license.
Incitement on Trial: Prosecuting International Speech Crimes
by
International and national armed conflicts are usually preceded by a media campaign in which public figures foment ethnic, national, racial or religious hatred, inciting listeners to acts of violence. Incitement on Trial evaluates the efforts of international criminal tribunals to hold such inciters criminally responsible. This is an unsettled area of international criminal law, and prosecutors have often struggled to demonstrate a causal connection between speech acts and subsequent crimes. This book identifies 'revenge speech' as the type of rhetoric with the greatest effects on empathy and tolerance for violence. Wilson argues that inciting speech should be handled under the preventative doctrine of inchoate crimes, but that once international crimes have been committed, then ordering and complicity are the most appropriate forms of criminal liability. Based in extensive original research, this book proposes an evidence-based risk assessment model for monitoring political speech.
Social Processes of Online Hate
by
This book explores the social forces among and between online aggressors that affect the expression and perpetration of online hate. Its chapters illustrate how patterns of interactive social behavior reinforce, magnify, or modify this expression. It also considers the characteristics of social media that facilitate social interactions that promote hate and facilitate relationships among haters. Bringing together a range of international experts and covering an array of themes, including woman abuse, antisemitism, pornography, radicalization, and extreme political youth movements, this book examines the specific social factors and processes that facilitate these forms of hate and proposes new approaches for explaining them.
Cutting-edge, interdisciplinary, and authoritative, this book will be of interest to sociologists, criminologists, and scholars of media, communication, and computational social science alike, as well as those engaged with hate crime, hate speech, social media, and online social networks.
Stirring up Hatred: Myth, Identity and Order in the Regulation of Hate Speech
by
This book critically examines the development of the 'stirring up hatred' offences which are currently found within the UK's Public Order Act 1986. Through a critical discourse analysis of key excerpts of parliamentary Hansard, the book constructs a detailed genealogy of the offences from the perspectives that shaped them. A novel application of theory on 'myth' is used to navigate the complex arguments and to trace ideas about identity and order across parliamentary debates, from fears of Fascism in the 1930s to condemnations of homophobia in the early 21st century. The story of the stirring up hatred offences told in this book therefore extends far beyond the traditional frame of a dilemma between regulating hate speech and safeguarding free speech: it is inextricably entwined with myths about law, race and national identity, and speaks to wider themes of coloniality, neoliberalism, white entitlement, British-Christian exceptionalism and the innocence of law. Writtenin an accessible and engaging style, this book challenges a wide range of assumptions about hate speech law and raises a series of considerations for developing forms of accountability that are less complicit in the harms that they are supposed to redress.
עבירות ההסתה לגזענות ולאלימות: חשיבה מחדש
by
הביטוי כדי להגן מפני הסתה לאלימות ולגזענות? מהן ההצדקות לעבירות ההסתה? מתי ראוי, במדינה דמוקרטית, לפגוע בחופש האם עבירות ההסתה בישראל מנוסחות ונאכפות באופן המיטבי האפשרי?
אחריות מתווכי תוכן לעוולות ביטוי : הקשר חברתי, משפט וטכנולוגיה
by
האם ראוי להטיל על מתווכי תוכן מקוונים אחריות נזיקית לעוולות ביטוי שהפיצו משתמשים? מה ההיקף הרצוי לאחריותם השילוחית, התורמת והישירה לנזקי ביטויים משמיצים? במחקר חלוצי זה מציעה ד"ר מיכל לביא מסגרת תאורטית ולצדה מודלים יישומיים שלא הוצעו בעבר להתמודדות עם שאלות אלו. בחלק הראשון של הספר מוצגת תאוריה הקושרת בין תובנות רב-תחומיות שיסודן במחקרי תורת הרשתות, פסיכולוגיה ומדעי הניהול. המסגרת התאורטית נסמכת על הקשר הרשת החברתית, על אופי הדינמיקות הנוצרות בה מלמטה ועל השפעות הכוחות הפועלים עליה מלמעלה. התאוריה מאפשרת להבין טוב יותר מגמות ותופעות של זרימות מידע. לדוגמה, כיצד זורם מידע ברשתות, מדוע רעיונות מסוימים מתפשטים והופכים למוסכמה המובנת מאליה ואילו אחרים נדחקים לשוליים, וכיצד בעלי עניין ומתווכי תוכן מקוונים בפרט משפיעים על זרימות מידע ברשתות. החלק השני של הספר פורס ניתוח מקיף של חקיקה, פסיקה וספרות עדכנית, מהארץ ומעבר לים, בסוגיית אחריות מתווכים. המסגרת התאורטית שנפרסה בחלק הראשון מיושמת בבחינת האחריות בדיני הנזיקין ומובילה לטקסונומיות אשר לא נערכו בעבר ולמודלים יישומיים חדשים להסדרת אחריות שילוחית, תורמת וישירה של מתווכי תוכן לעוולות ביטוי. מודלים אלו יאפשרו לאזן טוב יותר בין שיקולים שונים בבסיס אחריות המתווכים, ואף יוכלו לסלול דרך חדשה להתמודדות עם שאלות נוספות, קיימות וחדשות, של אחריות לזרימות מידע.
Stirring up Hatred: Myth, Identity and Order in the Regulation of Hate Speech
by
This book critically examines the development of the 'stirring up hatred' offences which are currently found within the UK's Public Order Act 1986. Through a critical discourse analysis of key excerpts of parliamentary Hansard, the book constructs a detailed genealogy of the offences from the perspectives that shaped them. A novel application of theory on 'myth' is used to navigate the complex arguments and to trace ideas about identity and order across parliamentary debates, from fears of Fascism in the 1930s to condemnations of homophobia in the early 21st century. The story of the stirring up hatred offences told in this book therefore extends far beyond the traditional frame of a dilemma between regulating hate speech and safeguarding free speech: it is inextricably entwined with myths about law, race and national identity, and speaks to wider themes of coloniality, neoliberalism, white entitlement, British-Christian exceptionalism and the innocence of law. Writtenin an accessible and engaging style, this book challenges a wide range of assumptions about hate speech law and raises a series of considerations for developing forms of accountability that are less complicit in the harms that they are supposed to redress.
Online Misogyny As Hate Crime: A Challenge for Legal Regulation?
by
The ideal of an inclusive and participatory Internet has been undermined by the rise of misogynistic abuse on social media platforms. However, limited progress has been made at national - and to an extent European - levels in addressing this issue. In England and Wales, the tackling of underlying causes of online abuse has been overlooked because the law focuses on punishment rather than measures to prevent such abuses. Furthermore, online abuse has a significant impact on its victims that is underestimated by policymakers. This volume critically analyses the legal provisions that are currently deployed to tackle forms of online misogyny, and focuses on three aspects; firstly, the phenomenon of social media abuse; secondly, the poor and disparate legal responses to social media abuses; and thirdly, the similar failings of hate crime to tackle problems of online gender-based abuses. This book advances a compelling argument for legal changes to the existing hate crime, and communications legislation.
Hate Speech in Japan: The Possibility of a Non-regulatory Approach
by
This book explains the past and present status of hate speech regulations in Japan. The United States and European countries have adopted different approaches to resolve their respective hate speech problems. Both of them, however, continue to confront the dilemma that freedom of speech and anti-racism are fundamental values of human rights. Therefore, some scholars criticize the US approach as too protective of freedom of speech, while other scholars criticize the European approach as impermissibly violating that freedom. Compared to these countries, Japan is unique in that it does not criminalize hate speech and hate crime other than in the recently enacted Kawasaki City Ordinance criminalizing some kinds of hate speech. Japan basically relies on a comprehensive set of non-regulative tools to suppress extreme hate speech. This volume analyses Japanese hate speech laws and suggests a unique distinctive model to strike a balance between both core values of democracy.
The Right to Protection from Incitement to Hatred: An Unsettled Right
by
Against the backdrop of the new globalized hate speech dynamics, the nature and scope of States' obligations pursuant to international human rights law on prohibiting incitement to hatred have taken on increased importance and have become a controversial issue within multilateral human rights diplomacy. Key questions being posed in the on-going debates over how best to respond to the new wave of hatred include whether the international legal norm against incitement to hatred, as it currently stands, is suitable to address the contemporary challenges of this phenomenon. Alternatively, does it need to be developed further? This book traces the journey of this norm in three analytical domains; its emergence, relevant supranational jurisprudence, and the recent standard-setting attempts within the UN. The book argues that five internal features of the norm had a strong influence on its difficult path within international human rights law.
Freedom of Speech in International Law
by
Freedom of Speech in International Law charts the minimum protections for speech enshrined in international human rights law. It clarifies what the right to freedom of expression means under international law, identifies conflicts between law and state practice, and provides key recommendations as to how international standards should be interpreted, updated, and enforced. Each of the book's six chapters focusses on an area of the law that is being weaponized to silence the press or curtail freedom of expression. Chapters focus on insulting speech (including defamation and sedition laws), false speech (through misinformation or disinformation laws), hate speech, and speech affecting national security (in form of espionage/official secrets laws and terrorism laws). Each chapter outlines relevant state practice, identifies the conflicts that exist in international human rights law, and highlights areas for reform. Examples throughout the book demonstrate the legislative tools relied on by states to quash dissent - not just sedition, treason, and criminal insult laws that have traditionally targeted speech but, increasingly, terrorism, 'false news', and other vague laws to protect themselves against unflattering press. Recommendations at the end of each chapter aim to bridge the gap between practice and the legal obligations of both states and social media companies that have expressed voluntary adherence to the same standards. These recommendations build on existing standards, and have been endorsed by an esteemed group of experts from across the world, including the Media Freedom Coalition's High Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom.
דפנה ברק-ארז ודודי זכריה "הסתה לטרור וגבולות חופש הביטוי: בין הגבלות ישירות להגבלות עקיפות" עיוני משפט 35 (3), 555 (2013).
תמר גדרון וחיים אברהם "דיבור שטנה וקהילת הלהט"ב" זכויות הקהילה הגאה בישראל: משפט, נטייה מינית וזהות מגדרית 971 ( עינב מורגנשטרן, יניב לושינסקי ואלון הראל עורכים 2016).
לפניות והערות כתבו ל:irinabo@savion.huji.ac.il
מעודכן ל: 9.1.2025
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